The universe expands from an unimaginably hot and Houston Astros Blooming Baseballs Shirt speck (perhaps a singularity) with all the known forces unified. In a tiny fraction of a second tremendous changes are unleased. The strong force separates from the electronuclear. The weak force then separates from the electromagnetic. ~1 microsecond into this process Quarks are confined within hadrons. 1 millisecond in hydrogen nuclei are formed. 1 second in neutrinos begin to interact with other particles. At about the 3 minute mark helium nuclei are formed. 379,000 years in, the plasma cools enough for stable atoms to form and photons are released from this veil forming the Cosmic Background Radiation we see today. It’s 100 million years before the first stars can form, many generations of stars are busy creating the heavy elements necessary for life as we know it from the process of fission (both during the life of the star and during nova, supernova, and stellar collisions including those of neutron stars). All of these things almost certainly had to happen before life could form. So that’s somewhere around 1 billion years later before there is likely to be a place that is hospitable to life as we know it. But that’s even before galaxies have formed so that may be way too early, we just don’t know for certain.
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One advantage of the numerous distance-measuring schemes in use, which overlap over a range of Welcome To Friendly Fayetteville Arkansas Shirt from nearby to very distant, is that astronomers can calibrate and corroborate their measurements with multiple approaches. Such calibrations and corroborations thus lend an additional measure of reliability to these schemes. Indeed, by comparing results using different methods, weaknesses have been identified in certain schemes. In most cases, additional studies have demonstrated ways to guard against and correct for known difficulties. As a single example of these multiple approaches, prior to 2011 the distance to the Pinwheel Galaxy was determined, based on measurements of Cepheid variable stars in the galaxy, to be 20.9 million light-years, with an uncertainty of 1.8 million light-years. As of September 2011, measurements of the light output of the 2011 Type Ia supernova in the Pinwheel Galaxy are completely consistent with this distance figure…. In short, distances to astronomical objects can be and have been measured with substantial accuracy and reliability. For the most part, the calculations involved employ only basic mathematics taught in high school. Thus the overall conclusion of a universe consisting of billions of galaxies, most of them many millions of light-years away, is beyond reasonable doubt at the present time..
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